Age Factors in Foreign Language Learning: research project

Research Project final report

Victoria Richter, Ph.D., Instructor/Program Coordinator, Adult Education, COZ, Pawtucket School Department


What cognitive changes take place with age?

Cognition refers to mental processes used for perceiving, remembering, and thinking.

There seems to be a critical period for language, it lasts from approximately age two to puberty. Once this period is over, the capacity to learn language remains relatively constant throughout the rest of life.

Most studies show that, in general, cognitive abilities are the greatest when people are in their 30s and 40s. Cognitive abilities stay about the same until the late 50s or early 60s, at which point they begin to decline, but to only a small degree. The effects of cognitive changes are usually not noticed until the 70s and beyond. One study of intelligence over a lifetime found that by the age of 81, only 30-40% of study participants had a significant decline in mental ability. Two-thirds of people at this age had only a small amount of decline. And only certain cognitive abilities decline, while others may improve.


Age and Its Effects on Learning

At least among the general public, there seems to be a prevalent notion that age plays a major part in learning. The statement, "He/She is getting on in years" is often used to blame the aging process for impaired cognitive abilities. In saying this, we are endorsing a notion that as we age we lose much of our memory and ability to learn, but how accurate is this position?

Of course, there is the opposite notion that someone might be "still as sharp as a tack". This statement, however, seems to imply surprise that an older person is still performing as well.

A large amount of plasticity is lost from childhood to adulthood. However, what exactly happens to the brain from adulthood to old age and how does the environment effect this process are two particularly compelling questions.

To answer these questions, it is necessary to examine exactly how the brain changes later in life and in particular, changes that affect the number of neurons and their ability to make connections. Also, diseases that affect the ability to learn and the increasing susceptibility of the elderly to them are vital elements of this discussion.

In the debate over how the brain changes in the elderly, there are two general theories: "wear and tear" and "use it or lose it."

The idea of "wear and tear" can be likened to an automobile tire. It can only withstand so much effort during its life as treads become worn down and less effective in older tires. A common way of linking this theory to the body processes is that the brain, just like other organs, will deteriorate, and learning will become more difficult for the elderly.

The idea of "use it or lose it" is similar to the idea that exercising our bodies will benefit their functioning . Older people, even in their eighties or nineties, have run marathons effectively. However, they can accomplish this only if they constantly exercise and work out with their muscles.

Some researchers have argued that some of the age differences that have been found in standard laboratory studies may be due to a situation called "stereotype threat." Stereotype threat refers to an individualšs fear that his or her behavior will reinforce a negative stereotype that exists about a group to which one belongs.

Researchers contend that individuals perform at lower levels when they are placed in situations where they are aware that their actions could confirm a negative stereotype.

When older adults are aware of the negative connotations related to aging and memory, they experience heightened anxiety that could negatively affect their performance.

The table below will demonstrate the changes older adults experience in cognitive abilities, both positive and negative and lists the proposed remedial effort in an ESL classroom to facilitate this change.

It is important to emphasize that the changes in cognition described here do not necessarily happen to everyone. There is wide variation among individuals. Additionally, for those who do experience declines in cognitive functioning, they are usually not disabling. The degree of decline is small and should not interfere with normal day-to-day functioning. And there are many ways to compensate for the deficits or even to regain lost function. It may take longer for an older person to learn something new, but it's still possible to learn it.


Cognitive abilities that improve or do not change with age

Learning abilities affected by age for older students (O.S.)

Suggested Remedial Effort

O.S. perform as well or better than younger adults in tasks that involve making objective decisions and assessing people's character.

Negative stereotypes that exist about aging have negative effects on O.S. sense of well being and the extent to which people fear getting older.

Talk about negative stereotypes.

O.S. are just as adept as younger adults at distinguishing between essential and extraneous information when making decisions on issues that could impact their lifestyle.

Fluid intelligence (speed with which information can be analyzed, including attention and memory capacity) is more likely to decline with age

Use color codes to focus attention.

Use dictionaries and mnemotechnics.

Advise your O.S. to write down all information they might need for further studies.

Avoid exercises relying on memory only.

If the information is relevant to older adults, they can focus their cognitive resources, tune out the irrelevant information and make an informed decision.

Complex tasks that require taking in new information and analyzing it may become more difficult.

Give plenty of time to an older student to do a task.

Ask questions to check if new information is understood and processed.

Prioritize.

Give shorter class assignments to O.S. in a mixed-age class.

Give additional work to other students while older students are finishing the task.

Crystallized intelligence (accumulated information and vocabulary acquired from school and everyday life, the application of skills and knowledge to solving problems) may continue to improve with age. Many people continue to gain expertise and skills in particular areas throughout life.

O.S. may have less dexterity and coordination.

Give more time for written assignments.

Implicit memory (the retention of skills and reflexes) generally remains intact throughout life.

Working memory (the retention of information that must be manipulated or transformed in some way) is most affected by age.

Give well-defined tasks.

Provide clear instructions (possibly in writing) for accomplishing them.

Divide tasks into small self-contained sections.

When introducing every new part of the task, reintroduce the context.

Vocabulary usually continues to increase throughout life.

O.S. may have increasing difficulty with word retrieval. In other words, when recalling the name of a familiar person or object, they may experience the "tip of the tongue" phenomenon.

Help with vocabulary.

Use visual aids.

Review often.


In a series of interviews of older learners (age 58-83) through questionnaires written in their native language I collected the following data. These learners see a number of factors which, in their opinion, are negatively affecting their learning abilities.

Negative Factors and Number of Learners Who Notice Them

Memory deterioration - 12

Age - 3

Bad teacher - 3

Lack of prior experience in foreign language - 2

Lack of opportunity to speak - 2

Health - 1

Inability to learn foreign languages - 1

Decline in cognitive abilities - 1


Questionnaire for older English language learners

1. Have you learned another foreign language before? Which one?

2. Compare English with other foreign languages that you have learned throughout your life. Is it easier or more difficult to learn English now?

3. Compare yourself with other students in your class. Do you think it is more difficult for you to learn English? Why or why not?

4. Which of the following factors help or inhibit your learning of the English language. Please explain only the negative factors:

Factor: Helps/inhibit, Why

Your personality

Education

 

Hobbies

Immigration experience

Health

Age

Nutrition

 

People around you

Teacher

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION! YOUR ANSWERS WILL HELP TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF ESL TEACHING IN RHODE ISLAND.


I had also planned to interview educators who have worked with older students. However, I was not able to find a satisfactory number of educators to obtain enough useful data.


Conclusions:

1. Learners, as well as teachers and other community members might be affected by popular stereotypes that older students are not good learners. These stereotypes, unfortunately, influence older students' confidence in their own cognitive abilities.

1. Research data should be available to both teachers and learners to help to expose and refute existing stereotypes.

2. Many researchers believe that certain cognitive abilities may decline with age. The structure of the brain and the density of the memory change as we grow older. The degree of deterioration, however, depends on multiple factors and could be lowered by certain activities, training, or even genetic therapies.

3. The good news is that generally, cognitive abilities stay about the same until the late 50s or early 60s, at which point they begin to decline, but to only a small degree. The effects of cognitive changes are usually not noticed until the 70s and beyond.

4. Only certain cognitive abilities are affected by age, others stay the same or even improve.

5. All factors associated with healthy living, such as low-fat and sugar nutrition; physical and mental activities, sociability and others may help to prevent degeneration of the brain.


Literature and web resources used:

by C.E. Barber

David Andrew Brenner "Memory, Aging, and the I-function"

John Massari "Age and Its Effects on Learning"

Frederick H. Jackson & Marsha A. Kaplan "Theory and Practice in Government Language Teaching"

Gail Weinstein-Shr "Growing Old in America: Learning English Literacy in the Later Years"

Coalition of Limited English Speaking Elderly, Aguirre Institute "Tips for Teaching ESL to the Elderly"

Studies Suggest Age-related Declines May Be Overestimated May 23, 2003

cognitive changes take place with age? from infoaging.org


to research projects, 2003/4


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